chemokines and HIV-1 Neuropathogenesis
Molecular programming of endothelin-1 in HIV-infected brain: role of Tat in up-regulation of ET-1 and its inhibition by statins. FASEB J. 2007 Mar;21(3):777-89. Epub 2006 Dec 28. Chauhan A, Hahn S, Gartner S, Pardo CA, Netesan SK, McArthur J, Nath A.
Human Immune Deficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) infection can induce severe and debilitating neurological problems, including behavioral abnormalities, motor dysfunction, and dementia. HIV can persistently infect astrocytes, during which viral accessory proteins are produced that are unaffected by current antiretroviral therapy. The effect of these proteins on astrocyte function remains unknown. Astrocytes are the predominant cells within the brain; thus, disruption of astrocyte function could influence the neuropathogenesis of HIV infection. To explore further these effects, we constitutively expressed HIV-Tat protein in astrocytes. Since the nuclear presence of Tat protein leads to alteration of host gene expression, we further analyzed the effects of Tat on host gene transcripts. Endothelin-1 (ET-1) was a significantly elevated transcript as verified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and it was subsequently released extracellularly in Tat-expressing and HIV-infected astrocytes. ET-1 expression was also prominent in reactive astrocytes and neurons in brain tissues from basal ganglia and frontal lobes of HIV encephalitic patients. HIV-Tat regulated ET-1 at the transcriptional level through NF-kappaB (NF-kappaB)-responsive sites in the ET-1 promoter. Intriguingly, simvastatin (10 microM) down-regulated HIV-Tat-induced ET-1 and also inhibited activation of NF-kappaB in astrocytes. Our findings suggest that ET-1 may be critical in mediating the neuropathogenesis of HIV dementia and that statins may have therapeutic potential in these patients.
Reddy PV, Pilakka-Kanthikeel S, Saxena SK, Saiyed Z, Nair MP. Interactive Effects of Morphine on HIV Infection: Role in HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder.2012;2012:953678. Epub 2012 May 20.
Abstract
HIV epidemic continues to be a severe public health problem and concern within USA and across the globe with about 33 million people infected with HIV. The frequency of drug abuse among HIV infected patients is rapidly increasing and is another major issue since injection drug users are at a greater risk of developing HIV associated neurocognitive dysfunctions compared to non-drug users infected with HIV. Brain is a major target for many of the recreational drugs and HIV. Evidences suggest that opiate drug abuse is a risk factor in HIV infection, neural dysfunction and progression to AIDS. The information available on the role of morphine as a cofactor in the neuropathogenesis of HIV is scanty. This review summarizes the results that help in understanding the role of morphine use in HIV infection and neural dysfunction. Studies show that morphine enhances HIV-1 infection by suppressing IL-8, downregulating chemokines with reciprocal upregulation of HIV coreceptors. Morphine also activates MAPK signaling and downregulates cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). Better understanding on the role of morphine in HIV infection and mechanisms through which morphine mediates its effects may help in devising novel therapeutic strategies against HIV-1 infection in opiate using HIV-infected population
Fraga D, Raborn ES, Ferreira GA, Cabral GA. Cannabinoids inhibit migration of microglial-like cells to the HIV protein Tat. 2011 Dec;6(4):566-77. Epub 2011 Jul 7
Abstract
Microglia are a population of macrophage-like cells in the central nervous system (CNS) which, upon infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), secrete a plethora of inflammatory factors, including the virus-specified trans-activating protein Tat. Tat has been implicated in HIV neuropathogenesis since it elicits chemokines, cytokines, and a chemotactic response from microglia. It also harbors a β-chemokine receptor binding motif, articulating a mode by which it acts as a migration stimulus. Since select cannabinoids have anti-inflammatory properties, cross the blood-brain barrier, and target specific receptors, they have potential to serve as agents for dampening untoward neuroimmune responses. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of select cannabinoids on the migration of microglial-like cells toward Tat. Using a mouse BV-2 microglial-like cell model, it was demonstrated that the exogenous cannabinoids Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and CP55940 exerted a concentration-related reduction in the migration of BV-2 cells towards Tat. A similar inhibitory response was obtained when the endogenous cannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) was used. The CB(2) receptor (CB2R) antagonist SR144528, but not the CB(1) receptor (CB1R) antagonist SR141716A, blocked this inhibition of migration. Similarly, CB2R knockdown with small interfering RNA reversed the cannabinoid-mediated inhibition. In addition, the level of the β-chemokine receptor CCR-3 was reduced and its intracellular compartmentation was altered. These results indicate that cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of BV-2 microglial-like cell migration to Tat is linked functionally to the CB2R. Furthermore, the results indicate that activation of the CB2R leads to altered expression and compartmentation of the β-chemokine receptor CCR-3.
Letendre SL, Zheng JC, Kaul M, Yiannoutsos CT, Ellis RJ, Taylor MJ, Marquie-Beck J, Navia B; HIV Neuroimaging Consortium. Chemokines in cerebrospinal fluid correlate with cerebral metabolite patterns in HIV-infected individuals. 2011 Feb;17(1):63-9. Epub 2011 Jan 19.
Abstract
Chemokines influence HIV neuropathogenesis by affecting the HIV life cycle, trafficking of macrophages into the nervous system, glial activation, and neuronal signaling and repair processes; however, knowledge of their relationship to in vivo measures of cerebral injury is limited. The primary objective of this study was to determine the relationship between a panel of chemokines in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and cerebral metabolites measured by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) in a cohort of HIV-infected individuals. One hundred seventy-one stored CSF specimens were assayed from HIV-infected individuals who were enrolled in two ACTG studies that evaluated the relationship between neuropsychological performance and cerebral metabolites. Concentrations of six chemokines (fractalkine, IL-8, IP-10, MCP-1, MIP-1β, and SDF-1) were measured and compared with cerebral metabolites individually and as composite neuronal, basal ganglia, and inflammatory patterns. IP-10 and MCP-1 were the chemokines most strongly associated with individual cerebral metabolites. Specifically, (1) higher IP-10 levels correlated with lower N-acetyl aspartate (NAA)/creatine (Cr) ratios in the frontal white matter and higher MI/Cr ratios in all three brain regions considered and (2) higher MCP-1 levels correlated with lower NAA/Cr ratios in frontal white matter and the parietal cortex. IP-10, MCP-1, and IL-8 had the strongest associations with patterns of cerebral metabolites. In particular, higher levels of IP-10 correlated with lower neuronal pattern scores and higher basal ganglia and inflammatory pattern scores, the same pattern which has been associated with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). Subgroup analysis indicated that the effects of IP-10 and IL-8 were influenced by effective antiretroviral therapy and that memantine treatment may mitigate the neuronal effects of IP-10. This study supports the role of chemokines in HAND and the validity of MRS as an assessment tool. In particular, the findings identify relationships between the immune response-particularly an interferon-inducible chemokine, IP-10-and cerebral metabolites and suggest that antiretroviral therapy and memantine modify the impact of the immune response on neurons
Vani J, Sharma M, Shaila MS, Kaveri SV, Bayry J. Effect of gp120 on dendritic cell-derived chemokines: relevance for the efficacy of gp120-based vaccines for HIV-1.Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2012 Jun 27
Identification of the platelet-derived chemokine CXCL4/PF-4 as a broad-spectrum HIV-1 inhibitor.Auerbach DJ, Lin Y, Miao H, Cimbro R, Difiore MJ, Gianolini ME, Furci L, Biswas P, Fauci AS, Lusso P.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Jun 12;109(24):9569-74. Epub 2012 May 29
Mol Pain. 2009 Aug 12;5:48. Increased chemokine signaling in a model of HIV1-associated peripheral neuropathy. Bhangoo SK, Ripsch MS, Buchanan DJ, Miller RJ, White FA.
Painful distal sensory polyneuropathy (DSP) is the most common neurological complication of HIV1 infection. Although infection with the virus itself is associated with an incidence of DSP, patients are more ikely to become symptomatic following initiation of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) treatment. The chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP1/CCL2) and stromal derived factor-1 (SDF1/CXCL12) and their respective receptors, CCR2 and CXCR4, have been implicated in HIV1 related neuropathic pain mechanisms including NRTI treatment in rodents. Utilizing a rodent model that incorporates the viral coat protein, gp120, and the NRTI, 2'3'-dideoxycytidine (ddC), we examined the degree to which chemokine receptor signaling via CCR2 and CXCR4 potentially influences the resultant chronic hypernociceptive behavior. We observed that following unilateral gp120 sciatic nerve administration, rats developed profound tactile hypernociception in the hindpaw ipsilateral to gp120 treatment. Behavioral changes were also present in the hindpaw contralateral to the injury, albeit delayed and less robust. Using immunohistochemical studies, we demonstrated that MCP1 and CCR2 were upregulated by primary sensory neurons in lumbar ganglia by post-operative day (POD) 14. The functional nature of these observations was confirmed using calcium imaging in acutely dissociated lumbar dorsal root ganglion (DRG) derived from gp120 injured rats at POD 14. Tactile hypernociception in gp120 treated animals was reversed following treatment with a CCR2 receptor antagonist at POD 14. Some groups of animals were subjected to gp120 sciatic nerve injury in combination with an injection of ddC at POD 14. This injury paradigm produced pronounced bilateral tactile hypernociception from POD 14-48. More importantly, functional MCP1/CCR2 and SDF1/CXCR4 signaling was present in sensory neurons. In contrast to gp120 treatment alone, the hypernociceptive behavior associated with the injury plus drug combination was only effectively reversed using the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100. These studies indicate that the functional upregulation of CCR2 and CXCR4 signaling systems following a combination of gp120 and an NRTI are likely to be of central importance to associated DSP and may serve as potential therapeutic targets for treatment of this syndrome.
HIV-1 encephalopathy among perinatally infected children: Neuropathogenesis and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Mitchell CD.
HIV-1 encephalopathy among perinatally infected children in the United States was initially defined by a classic triad of findings that included: (1) developmental delay, (2) secondary or acquired microcephaly, and (3) pyramidal tract neuromotor deficits. The most severe form of this disorder typically occurred among young children who developed rapidly progressive disease in concert with profound immunosuppression, and Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonitis (PCP). The neuropathogenesis of this disorder appears to involve a cascade of viral products, various cytokines and chemokines, and neurotransmitters which promote ongoing inflammation, excitation, and overstimualtion of the N-methyl-D-aspartate type receptor (NMDAR) system. These subsequently lead to neuronal injury and death secondary to apoptosis or necrosis, astrocytosis, as well as dentritic and synaptic damage. The frequency of the most severe forms of encephalopathy among children has dropped dramatically since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Of concern, however, is the possibility that a more insidious form of this disorder may be occurring presently among older vertically infected children as a result of inadequate penetration of HAART agents into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This paper will review what published data there is as yet that bears on this question.
Neural progenitors and HIV-1-associated central nervous system disease in adults and children. Curr HIV Res. 2006 Jul;4(3):319-27. Schwartz L, Major EO.
The human
immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is a neurotrophic lentivirus that enters and infects the central nervous system (CNS) of adults and children, giving rise to the clinical syndromes of
AIDS-dementia complex (ADC) in adults and HIV-1-associated progressive encephalopathy (PE) in pediatric patients. The clinical presentation and progression of neuroAIDS n the developing
brain of children is distinct from that seen in adult patients. Neuroimaging, and upon autopsy, neuropathological findings corresponding to clinical disease in pediatric patients include impaired
brain growth, reactive gliosis, myelin pallor, calcifications of the basal ganglia, cortical and cerebral atrophy with neuronal loss and ventricular enlargement, and abnormalities of cerebral
vasculature. Although there is som overlap with neuropathologic findings in adult patients, ADC in adults is more typically a late development, often complicated by opportunistic infections of
the CNS. The neuropathogenesis of ADC and PE is incompletely understood. One population of CNS cells critical for brain development and response to injury and inflammation are neural progenitors
cells, and it has therefore been suggested that these cells may be involved in theneuropathogenesis of ADC, and especially PE. This review examines the neurobiology of neural progenitor cells and the
possibility that HIV-1 infection of neural progenitors, exposure of neural progenitors to virus, viral products, or progenitor exposure to HIV-1associated neuroinflammatory substances and neurotoxins
might contribute to the neuropathogenesis of AIDS in adults and children. That some of the clinical differences between ADC and PE might, in part, be explained by differences in neural progenitor
involvement will also be considered.
Cognitive functioning in school-aged children with vertically acquired HIV infection being treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Dev Neuropsychol. 2006;30(2):633-57. Martin SC, Wolters PL, Toledo-Tamula MA, Zeichner SL, Hazra R, Civitello L.
In today's era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), few children with HIV-1 infection experience severe central nervous system (CNS) manifestations indicative of encephalopathy. However, little is known about the neurocognitive strengths and weaknesses of HIV-infected children treated with HAART. This cross-sectional study is the first to systematically investigate the relation between cognitive functioning and medical markers in HIV-infected children and adolescents treated with HAART with varying levels of computed tomography (CT) brain scan abnormalities. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition was administered to 41 vertically infected children (mean age = 11.2 years) treated with HAART for at least 1 year. Other procedures at the time of testing included CT brain scans and collection of CD4 cell counts and plasma HIV1 RNA PCR. Although global cognitive functioning among participants was in the Average range, children with minimal to moderate CT brain scan abnormalities scored significantly lower than children with normal scans on composite measures of cognitive functioning and five specific subtests, especially tasks involving executive functions. Furthermore, children with worse immune status (CD4+ counts < or = 500) scored lower on subtests measuring processing speed. Viral load was unrelated to cognitive test scores. Thus, children with HIV being treated with HAART remain at risk for developing CNS disease. Findings emphasize the importance of conducting neuropsychological assessments in this population, particularly for children with cortical atrophy and absolute CD4+ cell counts < or = 500
Drug Metab Dispos. 2007 Nov;35(11):2076-85. Epub 2007 Aug 20. P-glycoprotein-mediated active efflux of the anti-HIV1 nucleoside abacavir limits cellular accumulation and brain distribution. Shaik N, Giri N, Pan G, Elmquist WF.
P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated efflux at the blood-brain barrier has been implicated in limiting the brain distribution of many anti-HIV1 drugs, primarily protease inhibitors, resulting in suboptimal concentrations in this important sanctuary site. The objective of this study was to characterize the interaction of abacavir with P-gp and determine whether P-gp is an important mechanism in limiting abacavir delivery to the central nervous system (CNS). In vitro and in vivo techniques were employed to characterize this interaction. Abacavir stimulated P-gp ATPase activity at high concentrations. The cellular accumulation of abacavir was significantly decreased by approximately 70% in Madin-Darby canine kidney II (MDCKII)-MDR1 monolayers compared with wild-type cells and was completely restored by the P-gp inhibitors ((R)-4-((1aR,6R,10bS)-1,2-difluoro-1,1a,6,10b-tetrahydrodibenzo(a,e)cyclopropa(c)cycloheptan-6-yl)-alpha-((5-quinoloyloxy)methyl)-piperazineethanol, trihydrochloride) (LY335979) and N-[4-[2-(6,7-dimethoxy-3,4-dihydro-1H-isoquinolin-2-yl)ethyl]phenyl]-5-methoxy-9-oxo-10H-acridine-4-carboxamide (GF120918). Directional flux experiments indicated that abacavir had greater permeability in the basolateral-to-apical direction (1.58E-05 cm/s) than in the apical-to-basolateral direction (3.44E-06 cm/s) in MDR1-transfected monolayers. The directionality in net flux was abolished by both LY335979 and GF120918. In vivo brain distribution studies showed that the AUC(plasma) in mdr1a(-/-) CF-1 mutant mice was approximately 2-fold greater than the AUC(plasma) in the wild type, whereas the AUC(brain) in the mutant was 20-fold higher than that in the wild type. Therefore, the CNS drug targeting index, defined as the ratio of AUC brain-to-plasma for mutant over wild type, was greater than 10. These data are the first in vitro and in vivo evidence that a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor is a P-gp substrate. The remarkable increase in abacavir brain distribution in P-gp-deficient mutant mice over wild-type mice suggests that P-gp may play a significant role in restricting the abacavir distribution to the CNS.
Cytokine. 2001 Jul 21;15(2):96-107. Role of CD23 in astrocytes inflammatory reaction during HIV-1 related encephalitis. Dugas N, Lacroix C, Kilchherr E, Delfraissy JF, Tardieu M.
Soluble factors released by intra-cerebral activated cells are implicated in neuronal alterations during central nervous system inflammatory diseases. In this study, the role of the CD23 pathway in astrocyte activation and its participation in human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)-induced neuropathology were evaluated. In human primary astrocytes, CD23 protein membrane expression was dose-dependently upregulated by gp120. It was also upregulated by gamma-interferon (gamma-IFN) and modulated by interleukin-1-beta (IL-1beta) whereas microglial cells in these stimulation conditions did not express CD23. Cell surface stimulation of CD23 expressed by astrocytes induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and IL-1beta which was inhibited by a specific inducible NO-synthase (iNOS) inhibitor (aminoguanidine), indicating the implication of this receptor in the astrocyte inflammatory reaction. On brain tissues from five out of five patients with HIV-1-related encephalitis, CD23 was expressed by astrocytes and by some microglial cells, whereas it was not detectable on brain tissue from five of five HIV-1-infected patients without central nervous system (CNS) disease or from two of two control subjects. In addition, CD23 antigen was co-localized with iNOS and nitrotyrosine on brain tissue from patients with HIV1-related encephalitis, suggesting that CD23 participates in iNOS activation of astrocytes in vivo. In conclusion, CD23 ligation is an alternative pathway in the induction of inflammatory product synthesis by astrocytes and participates in CNS inflammation.
J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999 Aug 15;21(5):371-5. Cerebrospinal fluid HIV RNA and drug levels with combination ritonavir and saquinavir. Kravcik S, Gallicano K, Roth V, Cassol S, Hawley-Foss N, Badley A, Cameron DW.
Combination antiretroviral therapy with ritonavir and saquinavir has established potent and durable activity on plasma viremia. CNS HIV infection may be sequestered from drug therapy that does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Penetration of these protease inhibitors into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and CSF HIV RNA levels on such therapy has not been well described.
In a cross-sectional study, 28 HIV1-infected study subjects were evaluated either before initiation of or before maximal response to ritonavir-saquinavir therapy, during maximal plasma virologic response, and after virologic failure. Simultaneous samples of plasma and cerebrospinal fluid were obtained from 24 study subjects to measure HIV RNA and protease inhibitor levels.
Across the treatment groups, a strong correlation was found between plasma and CSF HIV RNA levels (r = 0.870; p < .001). In each study subject with plasma HIV RNA levels below assay limit (80 copies/ml), the CSF HIV RNA level was also below the limit of quantitation. Low levels of saquinavir (<2 ng/ml) and ritonavir (<25 ng/ml) in the CSF were observed, with a CSF:plasma drug concentration ratio of < or = 0.005 (0.5%) in all study subjects evaluated (n = 11). The plasma:CSF HIV RNA ratio was high before or early in treatment (median, 38; interquartile range [IQR], 13,97), but low (median, 0.29; IQR, 0.17, 7.5) in those failing therapy (group C, p < .001).
CSF ritonavir and saquinavir levels are consistent with the estimated known fraction of unbound drug in plasma (<2%). Across these treatment response groups, suppression of plasma viremia can predict low CSF HIV RNA levels. This correlation may represent HIV RNA transport and equilibrium between CSF and plasma, or it may represent CNS anti-HIV activity of protease inhibitors. The low drug levels and inverted ratio of HIV RNA in the CSF compared with plasma early in plasma virologic breakthrough suggests CSF virologic failure may contribute to failure of plasma virologic response.
J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1995 May;54(3):350-7. Differential vulnerability of calbindin-immunoreactive neurons in HIV encephalitis. E Masliah E, Ge N, Achim CL, Wiley CA.
Recent studies have suggested that the neuronal damage during human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis (HIVE) might be mediated by increased intracellular calcium. Since in vitro studies have shown that calcium-binding proteins protect neurons from calcium-mediated toxicity, we hypothesized that calbindin-expressing neurons might be resistant to HIV1-mediated damage. We compared patterns of calbindin immunoreactivity in the cortex and subcortex of autopsied AIDS cases with and without HIVE. Calbindin-immunoreactive neurons in the neocortex were significantly reduced in HIVE (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.001), while these neurons in the basal ganglia and hippocampus were unaffected. The loss of calbindin-immunolabeled neurons in the neocortex was correlated with viral burden (r = -0.45, p < 0.001). Differential loss of calbindin-immunoreactive neurons in HIVE suggests that neuronal damage in different regions of the CNS may be mediated by different pathogenic mechanisms
Res Virol. 1994 May-Aug;145(3-4):147-53. Restricted expression of HIV1 in human astrocytes: molecular basis for viral persistence in the CNS. Kleinschmidt A, Neumann M, Möller C, Erfle V, Brack-Werner R.
Abstract
Besides macrophages and microglial cells, cells of astroglial origin are thought to be targets of HIV1 in the brain. HIV1 infection of astroglial cells results in restricted production of the virus. To analyse the molecular basis of this restricted infection phenotype, we established a chronically HIV1-infected low-producer astrocytoma cell line. These cells show only low levels of mRNA encoding structural proteins, due to a cell-determined blockage in the Rev/RRE regulatory axis. The low-producer state could not be overcome by treatment with known stimulators of virus expression such as phorbol ester, (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate), tumour necrosis factor alpha or sodium butyrate. This indicates that the molecular mechanisms involved in restricting virus production in astroglial cells differ from those in latently infected T cells and monocytes.
Res Virol. 1991 Mar-Jun;142(2-3):145-9. HIV receptors within the brain: a study of CD4 and MHC-II on human neurons, astrocytes and microglial cells.Peudenier S, Héry C, Ng KH, Tardieu M.
We have investigated the level of
expression of CD4 and MHC-II antigens on CNS cells and compared it to that on monocytes. MHC-II antigens were expressed spontaneously on cultured astrocytes and monocytes, whereas they were detected
only after IFN gamma stimulation of microglial cells. In vitro, CD4 receptor was present on monocytes but not on neurons, astrocytes or microglial cells. In normal brain, CD4 antigen was expressed on
perivascular microglial cells, a specialized microglia expressing monocytic markers, whereas in HIV1-infected brain, CD4+ cells were numerous and scattered throughout the whole parenchyma. These CD4+
macrophages may be HIV1-infected monocytes which have crossed the blood-brain barrier after infection, or perivascular
microglial cells infected by HIV1-infected blood lymphocytes or five virions.
Acta Neurol (Napoli). 1990 Feb;12(1):53-7. HIV1-Ag in cerebrospinal fluid during AIDS. Scalzini A, Scura G, Stellini R, Cristini G.
HIV infection may display neurological symptoms at any stage; the virus can be isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients and of two third of patients with AIDS. This study sought to determine the sensitivity of HIV1-Ag in the CSF of an HIV-Ab positive population to evaluate its diagnostic and/or prognostic significance. CSF HIV1-Ag was dosed in 48 patients: 9 patients belonged to the III CDC group, 2 to group IVA, 1 to IVB and 36 to IVC1. In the last group, 14 patients had not opportunistic infections of the CNS. The tests proved positive in: 1 IVB patient and 16 IVC patients with focal lesions of the CNS or cerebral atrophy; HIV1-Ag was present in the CSF of 63% of patients displaying neurologic symptoms and it reached 84% in patients with diffuse CNS pathology.
Accumulation of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA damage in the frontal cortex cells of patients with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Zhang Y, Wang M, Li H, Zhang H, Shi Y, Wei F, Liu D, Liu K, Chen D. Brain Res. 2012 Jun 6;1458:1-11. Epub 2012 Apr 11.
Oxidative stress has been suggested to play
a key role in the neuropathogenesis of HIV infection. HIV proteins (gp120, Tat) and proinflammatory cytokines can trigger the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in DNA and RNA
lesions. Among all the lesions induced by ROS, one of the most abundant lesions in DNA and RNA is 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-oxoG). Here, we studied accumulated DNA oxidative damage induced by ROS in
the central nervous system (CNS) in tissue from neuro-AIDS patients. The frontal cortex of autopsy tissue from HIV-1 infected patients was adopted for analysis for HIV-1 subtype, nuclear and
mitochondrial DNA lesions by immunofluorescence staining, qPCR and sequencing of PCR cloning. This study provides evidence that HIV infection in the CNS leads to nuclear and mitochondrial genomic DNA
damage in the brain. High level of nuclear and mtDNA 8-oxoG damage were identified in the cortex autopsy tissue of HAND patients. Increased accumulation of mtDNA mutations and depletion occurs in
brain tissue
in a subset of HAND cases, and is significantly different from that observed in control cases. These findings suggest that higher level of ROS in the CNS of HAND patients would contribute to the HIV
induced neuro-inflammation and apoptosis of neuronal and glial cells.
HIV-1 and CNS damage
Curr HIV Res. 2012 Jul 1;10(5):425-8. Cocaine and HIV-1 Interplay in CNS: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms. Buch S, Yao H, Guo M, Mori T, Mathias-Costa B, Singh V, Seth P, Wang J, Su TP.
Although antiretrovirals are the mainstay of therapy against HIV infection, neurological complications associated with the virus continue to hamper quality of life of the infected individuals. Drugs of abuse in the infected individuals further fuel the epidemic. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that abuse of cocaine resulted in acceleration of HIV infection and the progression of NeuroAIDS. Cocaine has not only been shown to play a crucial role in promoting virus replication, but also has diverse but often deleterious effects on various cell types of the CNS. In the neuronal system, cocaine exposure results in neuronal toxicity and also potentiates gp120-induced neurotoxicity. In the astroglia and microglia, cocaine exposure leads to up-regulation of pro-inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and chemokines. These in turn, can lead to neuroinflammation and transmission of toxic responses to the neurons. Additionally, cocaine exposure can also lead to leakiness of the blood-brain barrier that manifests as enhanced transmigraiton of leukocytes/monocytes into the CNS. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have provided valuable tools in exploring the role of cocaine in mediating HIV-associated neuropathogenesis. This review summarizes previous studies on the mechanism(s) underlying the interplay of cocaine and HIV as it relates to the CNS.
Gene delivery of antioxidant enzymes inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120-induced expression of caspases. Louboutin JP, Agrawal L, Reyes BA, van Bockstaele EJ, Strayer DS. Neuroscience. 2012 Jul 12;214:68-77. Epub 2012 Apr 21.
Caspases are implicated in neuronal death in neurodegenerative and other central nervous system (CNS) diseases. In a rat model of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), we previously characterized HIV-1 envelope gp120-induced neuronal apoptosis by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. In this model, neuronal apoptosis occurred probably via gp120-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS). Antioxidant gene delivery blunted gp120-related apoptosis. Here, we studied the effect of gp120 on different caspases (3, 6, 8, 9) expression. Caspases production increased in the rat caudate-putamen (CP) 6h after gp120 injection into the same structure. The expression of caspases peaked by 24h. Caspases colocalized mainly with neurons. Prior gene delivery of the antioxidant enzymes Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) or glutathione peroxidase (GPx1) into the CP before injecting gp120 there reduced levels of gp120-induced caspases, recapitulating the effect of antioxidant enzymes on gp120-induced apoptosis observed by TUNEL. Thus, HIV-1 gp120 increased caspases expression in the CP. Prior antioxidant enzyme treatment mitigated production of these caspases, probably by reducing ROS levels.
J Neuroinflammation. 2011 May 14;8:48. Lentiviral vector-mediated stable expression of sTNFR-Fc in human macrophage and neuronal cells as a potential therapy for neuroAIDS. Cao S, Wu C, Yang Y, Sniderhan LF, Maggirwar SB, Dewhurst S, Lu Y.
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection frequently causes neurologic disease, which is the result of viral replication and activation of macrophages and microglia in the CNS, and subsequent secretion of high levels of neurotoxic products, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). We therefore hypothesized that a soluble TNF-α antagonist might have potential utility as a neuroprotective effecter molecule, and conducted proof-of-concept studies to test this hypothesis. To develop novel therapeutics for the treatment of neuroAIDS, we constructed and characterized a soluble TNF receptor (sTNFR)-Fc fusion protein with the goal of neutralizing TNF-α, and tested the stability of expression of this gene following delivery by a lentiviral vector. High-titer lentiviral vectors were prepared, allowing efficient transduction of macrophage/glial and neuronal cell lines, as well as primary rat cerebellar neurons. Efficient, stable secretion of sTNFR-Fc was demonstrated in supernatants from transduced cell lines over 20 passages, using both western blot and ELISA. Biological activity of the secreted sTNFR-Fc was confirmed by TNF-specific in vitro protein binding and functional blocking assays. Finally, the secreted protein was shown to protect neuronal cells from TNF-α, HIV-1 Tat-, and gp120-mediated neurotoxicity. These results demonstrate that lentiviral vector mediated expression of sTNFR-Fc may have potential as a novel therapy for neuroAIDS.
Bioinformation. 2011 Mar 22;6(2):48-56. HIV-1 envelope accessible surface and polarity: clade, blood, and brain.Sowmya G, Shamini G, Anita S, Sakharkar M, Mathura V, Rodriguez H, Levine AJ, Singer E, Commins D, Somboonwit C, Sinnott JT, Sidhu HS, Rajaseger G, Pushparaj PN, Kangueane P, Shapshak P.
The human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) gp160 (gp120-gp41 complex) trimer envelope (ENV) protein is a potential vaccine candidate for HIV/AIDS. HIV-1 vaccine development has been problematic and charge polarity as well as sequence variation across clades may relate to the difficulties. Further obstacles are caused by sequence variation between blood and brain-derived sequences, since the brain is a separate compartment for HIV-1 infection. We utilize a threedimensional residue measure of solvent exposure, accessible surface area (ASA), which shows that major segments of gp120 and gp41 known structures are solvent exposed across clades. We demonstrate a large percent sequence polarity for solvent exposed residues in gp120 and gp41. The range of sequence polarity varies across clades, blood, and brain from different geographical locations. Regression analysis shows that blood and brain gp120 and gp41 percent sequence polarity range correlate with mean Shannon entropy. These results point to the use of protein modifications to enhance HIV-1 ENV vaccines across multiple clades, blood, and brain. It should be noted that we do not address the issue of protein glycosylation here; however, this is an important issue for vaccine design and development. ABBREVIATIONS: HIV-1 - human immunodeficiency virus type 1, AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, ENV - envelope, gp160 - 160,000d glycoprotein, gp120 - 120,000d glycoprotein, gp41 - 41,000d glycoprotein, LANL - Los Alamos National Laboratories, PDB - Protein Data Bank, HVTN - STEP HIV vaccine trial, AA - amino acids, MSA - multiple sequence alignment, ASA - accessible surface area, SNPs- single nucleotide polymorphisms, HAART - Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy, CCR5 - C-C chemokine receptor type 5, CNS - central nervous system, HIVE - HIV encephalitis, P - polarity, NP - non-polarity, CTL - cytotoxic T lymphocyte, NIAID - National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.
J Neurovirol. 2011 Feb;17(1):41-9. Epub 2011 Jan 14.PTEN gene silencing prevents HIV-1 gp120(IIIB)-induced degeneration of striatal neurons. Zou S, El-Hage N, Podhaizer EM, Knapp PE, Hauser KF.
To assess the role of the phosphatase and tensin homologue on chromosome 10 (PTEN) in mediating envelope glycoprotein 120 (gp120)-induced neurotoxicity in the striatum, PTEN was silenced using short interfering RNA (siRNA) vectors. PTEN activity directs multiple downstream pathways implicated in gp120-induced neuronal injury and death. PTEN is a negative regulator of Akt (protein kinase B) phosphorylation, but has also been shown to directly activate extrasynaptic NMDA receptors and dephosphorylate focal adhesion kinase. Rodent striatal neurons were nucleofected with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing siRNA constructs to silence PTEN (PTENsi-GFP) or with negative-control (NCsi-GFP) vectors, and exposed to HIV-1 gp120(IIIB) using rigorously controlled, cell culture conditions including computerized time-lapse microscopy to track the fate of individual neurons following gp120 exposure. Immunofluorescence labeling showed that subpopulations of striatal neurons possess CXCR4 and CCR5 co-receptor immunoreactivity and that gp120(IIIB) was intrinsically neurotoxic to isolated striatal neurons. Importantly, PTENsi-GFP, but not control NCsi-GFP, constructs markedly decreased PTEN mRNA and protein levels and significantly attenuated gp120-induced death. These findings implicate PTEN as a critical factor in mediating the direct neurotoxic effects of HIV-1 gp120, and suggest that effectors downstream of PTEN such as Akt or other targets are potentially affected. The selective abatement of PTEN activity in neurons may represent a potential therapeutic strategy for the CNS complications of HIV-1.
Br J Pharmacol. 2011 Nov;164(6):1590-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01172.x. The protective effect of tianeptine on Gp120-induced apoptosis in astroglial cells: role of GS and NOS, and NF-κB suppression. Janda E, Visalli V, Colica C, Aprigliano S, Musolino V, Vadalà N, Muscoli C, Sacco I, Iannone M, Rotiroti D, Spedding M, Mollace V.
Tianeptine is an antidepressant affecting the glutamatergic system. In spite of its proven clinical efficacy, molecular effects of tianeptine are not entirely clear. Tianeptine modulates cytokine expression in the CNS and protects the hippocampus from chronic stress effects. HIV infection is associated with inflammation and neuronal loss, causing HIV-associated dementia (HAD). The human immunodeficiency virus type-1 glycoprotein gp120 has been proposed as a likely aetiological agent of HAD. In this study, we determined whether tianeptine protects astroglial cells from the neurodegenerative effects of gp120.
Human astroglial cells were treated with gp120 and tianeptine, and viability and apoptosis was monitored by TUNEL, annexin V, and activated caspase-3 staining and flow cytometry. Protein levels of glutamine synthase (GS), inducible and constitutive nitric oxide synthases (iNOS, cNOS) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway were determined by Western blot analysis. The respective activities were assessed indirectly by measuring glutamine and nitrite concentrations or by luciferase reporter assays.
Tianeptine showed an anti-apoptotic effect and prevented caspase-3 activation by gp120. The mechanism of tianeptine's action involved GS and cNOS stabilization and iNOS suppression. Moreover, tianeptine increased IκB-α levels in the absence of gp120 and blocked its degradation in response to gp120. This correlated with the suppression of basal and gp120-induced NF-κB transcriptional activity. Tianeptine clearly exerts neuroprotective effects in vitro by suppressing the molecular pro-inflammatory effects of gp120. Studies in animal models should be performed to evaluate the potential of tianeptine as a treatment for HAD.
© 2011 The Authors. British Journal of Pharmacology
J Neuroimmunol. 2010 Jan 25;218(1-2):94-101. Epub 2009 Nov 13.The HIV-1 transgenic rat as a model for HIV-1 infected individuals on HAART.Peng J, Vigorito M, Liu X, Zhou D, Wu X, Chang SL.
HIV-1 viral replication is limited in patients given highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART); however, HIV-1 viral proteins are still present. We demonstrate that the developing HIV-1Tg rat, which expresses all of the HIV-1 viral genes except the gag-pol replication genes, maintains lower body weight compared with the F344 control rat. Although HIV-1Tg rats eat and drink less than the control animals, they are not anorexic and show no evidence of anhedonia. At 19 months (mo) of age, HIV-1Tg rats begin to show clinical signs of wasting that progress to death. Using real-time RT-PCR, we compared the expression of the HIV viral proteins Tat, gp120, nef, and vif, in the HIV-1Tg rats at 2-3 mo of age with those at 10-11 mo of age. RNA levels of viral protein in the spleens of younger rats were significantly greater than those in the older rats (P<0.01). Conversely, viral protein mRNA levels in the spinal cord, cerebellum, and striatum were significantly greater in the older rats than in the younger animals (P<0.01). In the prefrontal cortex, Tat and nef expression was significantly greater at 2-3 mo of age than at 10-11 mo of age (P<0.05). These findings indicate that there may be age-dependent differential expression of various HIV viral proteins, with a switch from peripheral immune organs to the CNS, even when the animals are still pre-symptomatic. Our study also demonstrates that this non-infectious rat can be a useful model simulating HIV-1 infected individuals that are on HAART.